Distance Learning in Higher Education

H do conceptions of the knowledge worker and the learning organization fit with research on adult learning? In the last 30 years a great deal has been written on the subject of adult learning – Knowles, Cross, and Brookfield are three of the major theorists in the field. Knowles (1979) uses the term “andragogy” as opposed to pedagogy to argue that adults learn in ways different from children. He claims that adults have different motivations, goals, and expectations in regard to education. Adults are more self-directed, can be a rich resource for learning because of their life experience, can immediately apply what they learn, and are more problem centered. Consequently, the teaching methods need to be different. His andragogy emphasizes guiding and facilitating over teaching. Borrowing from the work of Rogers, Maslow and Dewey, Knowles promotes learner-centered education and the importance of personal inquiry. Cross (1981) looks at the growth of the learning society and its characteristics in terms of motivation and learning theory. She criticizes Knowles for his theory of andragogy as being difficult to implement, and points to the primary differences between adult and child learners as being the part-time and voluntary nature of adult learning. Brookfield (1986) analyzes the current literature and practices of adult education and andragogy, which he argues is more of a group of assumptions about adult learners than a proven theory of adult learning. He points out that adult learners as a group have proven to be a very complex set and that they are consequently difficult to generalize about. In looking at self-directed learning theories, Brookfield argues that experience has shown that many adult learners do not respond to self-directed learning methods. In fact, in contradiction to the positions of both Knowles and Cross, most adult learners do not want selfdirected learning and function poorly in such courses. Brookfield points out that some of the theorists of adult education have gone too far in allowing students to dictate the direction of the learning process. Furthermore, Brookfield denies the common perception that adult learning should be skill oriented and practical. His research shows that adults are often interested in studies that are impractical and more focused on personal development. One can see from these three theorists that we have a long way to go in terms of understanding the complex characteristics of the adult learner. Turning to adult learning in the workplace, Argyris & Schön (1974) describe the way in which professional education has been shun by universities in terms of practical application and thus a theory of practice hasn’t been properly addressed. In another study, Schön (1987) looks at educational practices in professional schools and argues that design studios offer a model for education based on the reflective practicum. Reflective practicum is a process in which students reflect in action while doing, and also involves an on-going dialogue with a coach. He argues that real life presents problems that are much more complex and ill defined than problems in traditional educational environments. Schön holds that the practice of professionals involves a type of “artistry” which includes problem framing, implementation, and improvisation – none of which can be taught in traditional fashions. Confessore (1996) maintains that learning must be integrated into all aspects of the job because of the need for increasingly skilled workers which traditional education cannot supply in rapid enough fashion, and because of the inability of companies to afford down-time while the worker is training. What has evolved is a need for workplace environments that integrate learning with every aspect of daily activity. Confessore sees reflective practice, action learning, self-directed learning, and learning organizations BY GARY A. BERG